The principles of infection prevention and control Essay Example for Free

The principles of infection prevention and control Essay Outcome 1 Understand roles and responsibilities in the prevention and control of infections 1.The main roles and responsibilities of the employee in relation to prevention and control of infection are as follows: To use protective clothing when needed to stop cross contamination. This includes gloves, aprons and masks. To wash hands regularly and effectively. This needs to be done after handling food, personal care, toileting etc. To ensure your health doesn’t pose a risk to others. This can be if you have been vomiting, cold symptoms etc. To avoid cross contamination. To ensure your hygiene is good at all times as not to pose a risk to others by passing on germs and cross contaminating. 2.The main roles and responsibilities of the employer in relation to prevention and control of infection are as follows: To ensure protective equipment is available at all times, and that they have plenty in stock. To make sure the employees are aware of all health and safety aspects of the job. This can include having posters around, having files for the employees to read and putting the employees through training. Keep all records related to infection control using the appropriate documentation and keeping them in a safe place. The employer needs to ensure that the relevant standards, policies and guidelines are available in the work place. Read more: Outline potential risks of infection within the workplace Outcome 2 Understand legislation and policies relating to prevention and control of infections 1.The current legislation and regulatory body standards which are relevant to the prevention and control of infection are as follows: Health and safety at work act 1974 Health and social care act 2008 The public health (control of diseases) act 1984 Personal protective equipment (PPE) regulations 1992 Controlled waste regulations 1992 Management of health and safety at work regulations 1999 Food Safety Act 1990 The NICE guidelines COSHH RIDDOR Relevant codes of practice National Minimum Standards (CQC) 2.The following local and organisational policies relevant to the prevention and control of infection are The public health (control of disease) act 1984, The social care act, The NICE guidelines and also company policies and procedures that relate to infection prevention and control. Our company states that anyone suffering from and infectious disease must have clearance from a doctor or you should seek guidance from your manager. Outcome 3 Understand systems and procedures relating to the prevention and control of infections 1.Procedures and systems relevant to the prevention and control of infection are as follows: Hand washing Hand washing is important in the work place as it stops cross contamination with residents and other members of staff. You should wash your hands after touching anyone, after handling food, after being to the toilet and after using equipment. Using PPE PPE is important in the care home as it protects you and others from infection. You should always use PPE when dealing with food and when dealing with personal care. You should always dispose of PPE before leaving a room or dealing with someone else. This stops cross contamination, protecting yourself and others. Disposal of clinical waste The correct disposal of clinical waste is important. Clinical Waste should be disposed if in yellow bags and tied straight away. This stops cross contamination. 2.An outbreak of infection can effect the organisation and the individual. The impact it can have is as follows: Impact on organisation The impact on the organisation can be costly, this is due to staff being sick and cover being needed for them. There can be a loss of confidence from the public and the residents giving the home a bad reputation. There is also a risk of infecting family members and visitors. Impact on individual There is a big impact on the individual as their health deteriorates meaning they need time to recover. It can effect their eating and drinking habits leading them to lose weight and become more ill. It could be fatal resulting in death. Outcome 4 Understand the importance of risk assessment in relation to the prevention and control of infections 1.Risk is a situation, action or event that may cause harm or damage to an individual or to yourself. Risk of infection can be not hand washing, not cleaning equipment after use and not disposing of clinical waste safely and properly as not to cause cross contamination. 2.Infections are unavoidable in the care home as there are so many risks. Potential risks can include the poor hygiene of a resident. This can be caused by them refusing to wash or bathe. Food poisoning is a risk if the kitchen and food surface aren’t kept clean at all times. Another potential risk is not cleaning equipment after use, as this can cross contaminate others causing harm to them. You must also make sure you dispose of clinical waste in the correct way, in the correct bins and tie bags up straight away as this can lead to a risk of infection. 3. Five steps to risk assessment can be followed to ensure that your risk assessment is carried out correctly, these steps are as follows: Identify the hazards Hazards can be identified by using a number of different techniques. This can include walking around the workplace, asking employees and asking family members. Who might be harmed and how? Once hazards have been identified you need to understand who will be harmed and how. This could be the resident themselves, the staff or visitors. Evaluate Risks After identifying the hazards and deciding who may be harmed, you then have to protect the people from harm. This is done by removing the hazards or controlling the risk so an injury is unlikely. Record findings Recording your findings shows that you have identified hazards and shows how you plan on removing the hazards. It is a legal requirement to record your documents to prove you are stopping any harm to others. Your recordings should be stored in a safe and locked place. Re view and update regularly It’s important to regularly review risk assessments so you can update any changes immediately. This is so the risk assessment is always accurate. 4.It is important to carry out risk assessments as it’s aim is to make sure that no one comes to harm and that nobody becomes ill. Risk assessments will  not prevent accidents and illnesses but play a crucial part in reducing the likelihood of it happening. They should be reviewed by all members of staff and kept up to date at all times so all changes are documented. Risk assessments are essential for legal reasons, ethical reasons and for financial reasons. This is so nobody can sue you. Outcome 5 Understand the importance of using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in the prevention and control of infections. 2.Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a term which covers all equipment intended to be worn, or held by employees that protects them against risks to their own and others health. There are different types of PPE used for different reasons. They are as follows: Gloves Gloves prevent self-contamination when dealing with bodily fluids, chemicals or to protect breaks in the skin. Once gloves are removed you should discard them immediately into a clinical waste bin and thoroughly wash your hands. Aprons Aprons should be worn whenever there is a risk of bacterial contamination. This includes bed making, toileting or barrier nursing. Aprons should be changed after every task. This includes resident contact, and between rooms. Masks Masks should be worn when there is an increased risk of blood splashing or an other bodily fluids splashing. They also provide resi dents protection from staff who have a respiratory infection. Eye Protection Eye protection (goggles, visors etc) should be worn when there is a risk of bodily fluid splashing to protect the eyes from infection. 3.Personal protective equipment is used to protect employees and residents from potential risk of harm. Everyone that uses PPE should be properly trained by the employer and follow all correct instructions and procedures. PPE should be used when handling contaminated items, to prevent cross contamination, to protect yourself from infections and to avoid diseases. 4.There are many relevant regulations and legislations relating to PPE. These should be read by everyone that uses PPE. They are as follows: Personal protective equipment at work regulations 1992 Control of substances hazardous to health (COSHH) regulations 2002 National institute for health and clinical excellence (NICE) guidelines The public health (control of diseases) Act The public health (infectious diseases) regulations 1998 Health and safety at work act 1974 The management of health and safety at work act 1994 The environmental protection (Duty of care) regulations 1991 Hazardous waste regulations 2005 5.Employees must wear personal protective equipment (PPE) while performing tasks to prevent themselves and residents from getting an infection and to prevent cross contamination between individuals. The employees responsibilities are as follows: To use PPE appropriately and as instructed by their employer Check PPE for damage before and after use Report any damage or wear to PPE Make sure PPE is stored in the right facilities 6.Employers must provide personal protective equipment (PPE) required by employees for free of charge, and must provide training to all staff. The employers responsibilities are as follows: To make sure PPE is available to staff at all times That staff know how to use PPE correctly That all staff know the correct application of PPE That all staff know the correct disposal of PPE That all staff know the correct preparations for use of PPE 7.Before putting on PPE, you must always thoroughly wash your hands. Different protective equipment should be applied and removed differently. Staff should be trained in all different types of PPE. Gloves Application Select the correct size of glove and correct type of glove (e.g. latex free) Wash hands thoroughly Pull over hands far enough that your wrists are covered Removal Grab the outside of the glove with the opposite gloved hand and peel off Hold the removed glove in the gloved hand Slot your finger under the lip of the remaining glove and peel it off carefully making sure not to touch contaminated surface of glove. Dispose of the gloves in the clinical waste bin Wash hands thoroughly Aprons Application Wash your hands thoroughly Pull the apron over your head carefully by trying not to come into contact with your skin Tie the straps around your back carefully not to rip it Removal Unfasten (or break) the ties around your back Pull the apron away from your neck and shoulders taking care to touch the inside only and not the outer side that is contaminated Fold the apron into a bundle with the inner side on the outside Dispose in the clinical waste bin Wash hands thoroughly 8.It is important that PPE is disposed of correctly to avoid contamination and infection to yourself and others. This is done as follows: Put on some medical gloves and place the PPE into a plastic garbage bag Tie the garbage bag tightly and securely to prevent dripping. If dripping does occur and touches your clothes or skin, make sure you wash them thoroughly to prevent infection. Place bag in the correct bin. These are normally labelled. Clean waste containers regularly to stop infection growing. Wash your hands thoroughly afterwards. Outcome 6 Understand the importance of good personal hygiene in the prevention and control of infections 1.There are many principles to maintain good personal hygiene. These help prevent infection and cross contamination. The main principles of good personal hygiene are as follows: Clothing Uniforms must be clean and free from contamination and washed separately from other clothing on a high temperature. Uniforms should be changed before  leaving the care home to avoid contamination. Nails Nails should be kept short and clean with no polish on and no extensions. This can cause contamination if polish flakes onto an individual or into food. Hair Hair should be kept clean at all times and tied up in a bobble out of the way. This is to prevent the risk of infection. Jewellery Jewellery should not be worn as they harbour dangerous bacteria. Jewellery can also cause harm to the resident by causing damage to the skin. 3. The correct hand washing sequence is as follows: Remove all jewellery Turn the water tap on making sure it’s at a comfortable temperature Wet both hands Apply soap from a dispenser and lather both hands palm to palm Rub each hand over the back of each other Interlock fingers and rub fingers thoroughly Rub thumbs Rinse hands to remove the soap Dry your hands with a paper towel or hand dryer 4.The purpose of hand washing is to reduce the risk of carrying infection on your hands which could be a risk to yourself or to others. Washing hands with soap and water is the most effective measure in the prevention of infection. Routine hand washing should be done after the following: After using the toilet After handling laundry or waste After handling a resident Before and after handling , preparing or eating food Before and after giving medication Before and after removing gloves Before starting work and after leaving work After touching animals 5.There are different types of products that should be used for hand washing. Soap, antiseptic gels and alcohol based hand rubs. Soap from a dispenser should be used in communal areas as bars of soap can carry bacteria that  will then be passed around to different people. Antiseptic gels contain chemicals that destroy pathogens and these are used when there is a higher risk of infection. Alcohol based hand rubs should be used as well of and no instead of hand washing as these add an additional protective barrier against infections. 6.It is important that hand cream is applied regularly to the hands as frequent hand washing can cause skin problems. It can cause them to dry out which can cause the skin to develop cracks, this itself causing bacteria. Allergies to washing preparations and gloves can sometimes occur and need reporting to your manager straight away, in order for them to get you the equipment to protect your hands. If there are any cuts or grazes of the skin, they should be covered by a plaster or bandage at all times to prevent infection into the wound and from the wound to others.

The Horse Dealers Daughter

The Horse Dealers Daughter D.H. Lawrences, The Horse Dealers Daughter, tells a timeless love story of Mabel and Jack, two people of totally different social standings, falling in love. After the death of Mabels father her and her three brothers are left to be on their own. While Mabels three brothers know where they are going to go and what each of them is going to do, Mabel is still undecided. Mabel is a stubborn, hardheaded girl who does not have much to say, to anyone. And when Jack Fergusson comes through the door of their house, Jack is the last person Mabel ever expected to fall in love with, or even have Jack fall in love with her. Jack Fergusson is a successful doctor, who did not think much of Mabel. Without either of them knowing it they were brought together after Mabel tried killing her self. Love has a strange way of choosing two people for each other, but it always seems to work out. Love is a powerful thing and despite how similar or different two people may be, love will find its way and this i s shown between Mabel and Jack through the use of the symbol of the pond, the plot, and each character themselves. Mabel and Jacks love can be shown through the symbol of the pond. The pond is a symbol that can be interpreted in many different ways; one being it symbolized love (Lu 8). Mabel felt it be at her best interest that she would be better off with her mother, who is dead. She preferred to follow in her mothers footsteps (Hebert). With that, came the thought that she should just kill herself. Without knowing it, the pond was the thing that brought Jack and Mabel together. As she was walking slowly into the pond Jack watched her. As Lawrence stated in the text he followed her minutely as she moved (743). This shows that he had an interest in her and what she was doing. After realizing what Mabel was doing Jack rushed down to the pond to save her (Lawrence 744). Jack showed his true love for her when he entered the water to save her, even though he could not swim. Jack did what any doctor would do and saved her life, after he brought her from the pond he made the water come from her mouth ( Lawrence 744). After Jack saved Mabel he tended to her at Mabels home. As that is one interpretation of the pond, the pond can also show a rebirth. Before Mabel tried to kill her self she was very shy and hardly talk to anyone. Just like their love, he did not know he loved her nor did Mabel know she loved Jack. Jack and Mabel had no real interaction before. After coming out of the water they both realized that they felt something for each other that was never expected. They were brought together by this incident, and there after Jack and Mabel showed their love for each other. While the pond shows Jack and Mabels love through symbolism, the plot also helps prove the theme to they story. The plot also helps prove the theme of the story. With the plot being when Mabel tried to kill herself, this is when both she and Jack first showed their love for each other. Through all the events that happened between Mabel walking into the water and the end of the story where Jack says they must marry (Lawrence 748), they fell deep into love. When Mabel asked Jack, Do you love me, then? (Lawrence 745) it took Jack a while to answer, although he knew that he did love her and Mabel knew he loved her. As Mittlemen said in her article, before the incident Jack had never indicated the he had any love for Mabel (4). In fact before the incident Mabel did not show her love for Jack, nor did she know she had any love for him. After he saved her neither of them could help but show their feelings for each other. The plot of the story helped them to revel their love for each other. They were meant to be together and one-way or another love was going to bring the both of them together. And aft er Mabel tried to kill herself they were together, just like they were destined to be. As the plot helps prove the theme, each character, Jack and Mabel, help as well. Each character, Jack and Mabel, help to prove the main theme the story has to show. Mabel is a part of the lower class of people, who has to buy the cheap groceries (Mittleman). While Jack is a successful doctor who is high class and is considered in the upper part of society. At the beginning of the story Mabel had no idea what she was going to do with her life, so she resulted to go with her mother, but Jack saved her from making that decision. Mabel and Jack are part of two totally different social standings. With that being that is the reason why neither of them thought they would ever fall in love. Starting off Mabel was stubborn and did not really show any liking towards Jack. They are two different people who had thought they had no feelings for one another. Jack shows his kindness towards Mabel. He accepts her for who she is and what she has to bring to the table. Jack knows that she is at the low part of society but he does not let that bother him. Once he realizes that he l oves Mabel, he will not let anything stand in the way of that. He say at the end of the story, Were going to be married, quickly, quickly-tomorrow if I can. (Lawrence 748) This shows that he has true feelings for her and Jack wants her to know that. Mabel, on the other hand, knows that he loves her and she loves him to but she starts to feel horrible. Mabel feels that she is not good enough for him and she does not understand why he loves her, Lawrence stated (748). Jack and Mabel over came the differences they had. They would not let anything stand in the way of their love. They love each other and they each prove that through their characters. Although all three points, symbolism of the pond, the plot, and each character, Jack and Mabel prove the theme, there can be an argument made that each of these literary elements do not help prove the theme of the story. The symbolism of the pond does not help prove the theme of the story because Jack is a doctor and he was doing his job of saving a life, but Jack had been watching her and he rushed to save her from making a mistake he did not want her to make. Also, people would argue that the plot does not show that love is a powerful thing because it does now show that they are brought together, it shows a doctor saving a life. But after the incident he tells her that he loves her and wants to be with her. Another argument can be made that the characters of Jack and Mabel do not show the theme because each of them are different in their own ways and have no true connection but despite their differences they came to love and care for each other. Although each point can be argued ag ainst, each literary element ties into the theme of the story. Jack and Mabels love is shown through the symbol of the pond, the plot of the story and each character themselves. The pond represented love; in a way that it made each of them realize that they really did love each other. The pond also symbolized a rebirth. After Jack saved Mabel she was more outspoken and was not shy anymore. Also after they came out of the water, so did their love. Jack and Mabel let their love for one another out. The plot of the story brought them together and made them realize that they had a deep love for each other. And each character proved that no matter how different two people are they could still fall in love. It is hard to find love when one is looking, but some people do not know that the person they are meant to love could be right in front of their eyes. Love comes to a person when they are not looking. And weather or not they think that certain someone is the one, love will prove them wrong. Love is an unstoppable thing that people have no control o ver.

The Influence Of Tests On Teaching Backwash

The Influence Of Tests On Teaching Backwash In the field of foreign language teaching and learning, there are two kinds of opposed views about the relationship between the language testing and the language teaching. One side is that the language testing should be known as the supplementary means for the language teaching. According to Davies (1968: 5), the good test should follow and ape the teaching. This is a point of controversy to most of researchers and teachers. The other side asserts that the relationship between teaching and testing is should regarded as partnership among each other. (Hughes, 2003: 3) That is commonly accepted among many scholars and teachers. Moreover, the language test is expected to support the good teaching and can be used as the corrective reflection and direction to the bad teaching. Furthermore, the influence of testing on teaching and learning is defined as backwash which can be either beneficial or harmful. (Hughes, 2003) Although, the test can impact the teaching on several aspects such as: c urriculum, materials, teaching method and content, attitude and behavior, and learning (Alderson Wall, 1993), the existence and the nature of the influence would be affected some elements such as: the teacher, the school, the test itself. (Spratt, 2005; Alderson Wall, 1993) Therefore, In addition, the existence and the nature of the backwash will be different in various teaching and testing context as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993) In the first part I show the complicated phenomenon of the language testing backwash in the language teaching generally. Specifically, there is a very close connection between the College English Test ¼Ã‹â€ CET ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °and college English teaching in China. (Gu, 2005; Li, 2009; Ceng, 1999; Shao, 2003) The CET is proved that it is an effective means of measurement for its result can accurately reflect the College English teaching and learning situation both of one university at different stages and different universities at the same stage. (Gu, 2005) With a great number of elements which can affect the CET and the college English teaching and learning, in second part of this essay I discuss the existence and the nature of the CET backwash. However, there are a great many of weakness which shouldnt be neglected, it is eager to find out some ways and means to achieve the beneficial washback of the CET to assist the college teaching efficiently. In the last part of this essay, I will give some suggestion how to promote the beneficial backwash of the CET with the theory of foreign language acquisition. The influence of tests on teaching- backwash 1.1 Definition of Backwash The influence of testing on teaching and learning which can be either beneficial or harmful is defined as backwash (it is known as washback as well). (Bailey, 1996: 259; Buck, 1988: 17; Hughes, 2003: 1). According to Taylor (2005), the backwash of tests has affected on numerous aspects of educational processes for a long time. It could believe that language tests backwash has been influencing on language teaching and learning constantly. As Hughes (2003:1) points that the test which is regarded as a significant one could command all relative teaching and learning activities. Specifically, the term backwash has been regarded as the way in which tests influence on teaching such as: designs of curriculum, choices of teaching materials, and conductions of classes. (Hughes, 2003:2) Therefore, the testing is playing an important role in what is taught in teaching context and how it is underway. However, the backwash of language tests would be regarded as either positive or negative. When the testing exerts the beneficial influence on language teaching, it could enhance the good teachings and reflect the bad teaching correctively as well. And the testing can play the role in language teaching as a partner of that process, which is perceived as an accurate relationship between teaching and testing. (Hughes, 2003:2) Otherwise, when a tests content and testing techniques are aimed to assess the restricted language ability only such as some tests doesnt test learners necessary language abilities (listening, speaking, writing and reading) directly, it would exert the harmful influence on language teaching. (Hughes, 2003; Taylor, 2005). The negative backwash would mislead teachers and learners to concentrate on doing what is regarded as unnecessary for achieving high score, and narrow the teaching/learning context as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Taylor, 2005) Although language tes ts play a decisive role in language teaching and learning, the influence of them may show different results in different teaching and testing situation. 1.2 Factors influenced by the backwash The result of studies shows the backwash for several views of language teaching in classroom to a certain extent, such as: curriculum, materials, teaching method and content, attitude and behavior, and learning. (Spratt, 2005; Cheng, 1997) In the view of the curriculum, tests are always regarded as one of references for the change of curriculums. (Pearson, 1988) In addition, Alderson (1986) agrees that the innovation of language testing is considered as an influential factor which can cause the innovation of language curriculum. However, Vernon (1956) emphasizes that some teachers always overlook parts of curriculum which couldnt conduce to raise scores of tests directly for they concentrate on training test excessively. Besides the testing, there are many other factors such as the nature of course, the class size, stakes of tests, and schools could affect curriculum as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Lam, 1994; Lyon, 1996; Read Hayes, 2003; Watanabe, 1996) Therefore, it can conclude that in various teaching and testing situation, the backwash for the curriculum will show in different ways, and backwash may not exist in some situations at all yet. (Spratt, 2005) The aspect of backwash for teaching materials, many researches point that the revision of language testing can cause the innovation of language teaching materials usage as well. (Alderson Lyons, 1996; Watanabe, 2000) In addition, some studies point that when the language test gets closer the backwash for the selection of language teaching materials is greater. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Lumley Stoneman, 2000; Alderson Lyons, 1996) Besides, we cant neglect that the aim of choosing and using some teaching materials is to improve relevant language abilities and some is to enhance testing techniques merely. (Spratt, 2005) Consequently, tests can impact the usage of teaching materials, but is not the main factor to determine it. For the view of teaching methods and content, Spratt (2005) sports that tests especially high-stakes tests can affect the implementation of teaching activities and the choosing of teaching contents. For example, the study of TOEFL from Alderson and Lyons (1996) indicates that teachers teaching techniques and classroom activities have a great many difference between TOEFL and non- TOEFL classes. Moreover, high-stakes tests would let teachers to spend lots of class time in simulating tasks of tests or promoting techniques and strategies of tests. (Shohamy, 1996) However, some researches find that some teachers believes students efficient language skills play the most important role in passing language tests. (Watanabe, 2000) Therefore, it could conclude that testing is not the only factor to lead the variety of teaching methods which is related to the diversity of teachers and teaching contexts as well. In the aspects of attitude and behavior, Pearson (1988) points that testing has impacts which are both in positive and negative side on attitudes, behavior, and motivation among teachers, students, and parents. For instance, students always recognize that tests let them study hard for achieving high scores, however they also worried about testing cannot reflect their all learning aspects accurately. (Cheng, 1998) Furthermore, some teachers think that testing is a proper way to ensure whether aims of syllabus have been achieved. (Morris, 1972) Nevertheless, testing always soaks students, teachers, and parents in the atmosphere of anxiety and fear, as all of them worried about the result of tests. (Shohamy, 1996) Under this kind of pressure, students couldnt play their normal level; at the same time teachers would do whatever can help their students to achieve higher scores. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Spratt, 2005) The connotation for considering the backwash for learning is to discuss whether language testing can make students learn more and better. (Wall, 2000) Studies with mentioning students learning strategies and performance point that in the particular testing context students test scores would have at least ten percent improvements through several months of related conduction for testing preparation. However, we are not sure whether these finding can be applied to other learning and testing context. (Smith, 1991) Moreover, Andrew (2002) emphasize that after preparing the oral part of language tests some students just could achieve testing strategies and learn formulaic expression by rote but couldnt interact meaningfully or appropriately yet. 1.3 Factors affect the backwash The teacher, the school and the exam itself are known as the influential elements which can affect the occurrence and the nature of the backwash. (Spratt, 2005; Alderson Wall, 1993) Above all, the most important factor which can affect the backwash is the teacher. Specifically, all of teachers belief about teaching and testing, teachers attitudes towards the test, teachers educational level and experience, and teachers own personality will impact whether backwash exists and it is beneficial or harmful. (Smith, 1991; Alderson Wall, 1993; Alderson Lyons, 1996; Watanabe, 1996; Shohamy, 1996, Spratt, 2005) Moreover, the size of school, the education philosophy of school, and the attitude towards tests of schools administrator are regarded as the factors which can influence the backwash. (Watanabe, 2000; Smith, 1991; Read Hayes, 2003) According to Alderson and Wall (1993), schools can curb the appearance of the backwash and affect its nature even for communicative tests. In addition, test itself would be able to impact the existence and the quality of backwash. (Spratt, 2005; Alderson Wall, 1993) Morrow (1986) asserts that the language test which can measure candidates ability of language application can be considered as a qualified test with powerful and beneficial backwash. In summary, language testing can exert influence on language teaching and learning indeed, but it will present as either positive or negative. As the backwash can impact lots of aspects of language teaching and learning process; the existence, the nature, and the deep of it must be diverse in different views. Moreover, the backwash is also affected by some elements, so its nature must be independent in different teaching or testing context neither. Therefore, the backwash will be shown in extremely different states in different teaching and testing context. Even though in a particular situation, each aspect of the backwash must be different neither. 2. The backwash for College English Test (CET) in college English teaching across China 2.1 Introduction of CET in China The College English Test (CET) is a national unified test which is sponsored by High Education Department of the Minister of Education of China and administrated by The National College English Testing Committee. (CET Testing Committee) After completing the English foundation course in the second school year, all of university students across China are permitted to participate in this test. (Yang, 2000) There is national wide range of stakeholders (teachers, students, and administrators) involved in this test. In other words, the CET can be regarded as a high-stakes test. Besides, it is proved that the CET is an effective means of measurement for its result can accurately reflect the CE teaching and learning situation both of one university at different stages and different universities at the same stage. (Gu, 2005) As the high status and reputation of this test, passing the CET-4 is regarded as a qualification to obtain the B.A degree among the majority of Chinese universities. Therefore, there is an extremely close relationship between the CET and the College English teaching and learning indeed. Furthermore, the results of many researches show that the CET can exert beneficial washback on The CE teaching and learning. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) Specifically, the execution of College English Teaching Syllabus has been promoted in CE teaching and learning by the CET. (Gu, 2005) However, there is harmful influence on CE teaching and learning from the implementation of CET as well. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) Excessive using of coaching materials makes classroom teaching be confined for preparing the test, which results textbooks cant be completed ideally. (Gu, 2005) The washback of CET on CE teaching and learning is either positive or negative and will be discussed specifically as follows. 2.2 The positive backwash of the CET We have discussed that the teacher, the school, and the test itself are the main elements which can affect the existence and the nature of washback on language teaching and learning above. Practically, as the CET is a high-stakes test, it makes all of administrators, teachers, and students to think highly of it. (Hughes, 2003) Moreover, one of the CETs aims is to promote the implementation of College English Curriculum Requirements in College English teaching and learning. (CET Testing Committee) In other words, to think highly of the CET among participants could be seem as to attach importance to College English teaching and learning. Therefore, one of the positive wahback of the CET is that it can guarantee the basic stage of implementation of college classroom English teaching. Moreover, according to the validation study of the CET (Yang Weir, 1998) shows that the CET is a highly reliable and valid test with rational design and can measure non-English majors English proficiency exactly and objectively at the tertiary level across China. So it can guarantee that the CET can provide the sensible feedback to assist college English teachers and students to promote their teaching and learning. The most important factor to warrant the positive washback is the design of question forms. (Gu, 2005; Li, 2009) Specifically, in order to fully reflect the importance of listening ability, the part of listening comprehension occupies a considerable proportion in the CET. Besides, the question forms contain not only the objective choice but also the subjective dictation with relatively diversity. Moreover, the selection of subject includes both narrative passages and dialogues with strong practicability. As reading is one of the main resources to achieve the information for people, training reading ability play a significant important role in college English teaching requirements. For meeting this demand, the CET has appreciable amount of reading tests with rational question form design. All of the selected reading texts are in the form of discourse. For the great percentage of listening and reading in CET, both teachers and students think highly of promoting these two kinds of abili ties actively. Furthermore, as the productivity and practicability of these parts of tasks, teachers pay more attention to use of authentic teaching materials. (Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) By this way, students applied language abilities can be developed essentially. Gradually, with the abilities development, students confidence and interesting on learning English has been enhanced as finding themselves can read original English discourse and understand English radio and TV programs days after days. Therefore, the other positive washback of the CET is that it can innovate college English teaching and promote college teaching and learning level across China. Tests of writing and speaking are the most important means to measure whether students have the ability of language application (Hughes, 2003). As the writing part in the CET, it sets the tasks and selects the samples as expression of attitude and information with all students familiar topic to evaluate students communicative applied ability in written English. (Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) It guides a clear direction for teachers teaching and students learning so that they can understand the centre of college English teaching and learning of non-English major has converted from knowledge of language to language itself. In other word, this kind of washback makes both teachers and students pay more attention on training of language application. For the speaking test of CET is optional, which means a student must get an exact higher score in the written part of the CET (more than 560 points in the CET-4 and more than 530 in the CET-6) who can be permitted to participate in the oral part of th e CET. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) In order to achieve the opportunity to take part in speaking test, most of students eager to get the highest possible scores in written part. At the same time, it motivates students study hard. As it is regarded as extrinsic motivation which is not as good as the intrinsic one but is better than nothing. (Alderson Wall, 1993) With achieving higher scores, students integrated language abilities have been improved efficiently. Above all, the part of speaking of the CET exerts the beneficial washback on college English teaching and learning as they enhance the initiative of students. 2.3 The negative washback of the CET However, as the students performance of the CET is an important symbol of English teaching quality in each college and also the focus of competition among them in China, the results of the CET are given undue importance. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) Specifically, in the fourth semester teachers just use the CET-oriented materials completely such as various simulated tests and the former CET papers to prepare the CET which is coming in June without any active classroom activity among students. They believe that test-oriented materials can help students to familiarize the test format and train their time management skill so that enhance the passing rate. (Gu, 2005) Using them as teaching materials in classrooms is inappropriate, as the CET is just the measurement not the purpose of college English teaching. Therefore, on the aspect of English teaching time distribution, there has been a phenomenon that the regular teaching time has been compressed and the curriculum has been distor ted among a great many of universities. Moreover, as the part of speaking in the CET is still optional until now, it must let teachers and students neglect to promote the oral ability during the period of test preparation. In this teaching environment, students are forced to face a lot of papers practice and the inevitable appearance of students dummy English have become increasingly unusual. Finally, students integrated applied abilities haven been promoted adequately with the lack of productive language skills training. Moreover, the score and the certificate have the considerable influence on opportunity of students future learning and job. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) It potentially makes some students regard achieving the CET Certificate as their final goal of learning English during their undergraduate study period. Consequently, after passing the CET, lots of non-English major students dont attach importance on English learning any more with this shallow attitude. Therefore, the CET cant motivate students to learn English intrinsically. On the aspect of test itself, it restricts students real language ability and interactive language ability. According to Krashen (1982), the most effective way for people to acquire language is achieving comprehensible input. Only this kind of language input which is slightly higher than learners current level can help learners obtain the better learning effect. As excessive emphasis on the initiative of the CET, the objectivity and impartiality of the score, the stability of the test level, the most of question forms of the CET are the multiple choices. (Li, 2002) Hence, students stray from the right path of learning English with the neglect of the cultivation about real language input and communicative ability training to concentrate on grammar, lexical analysis, testing skills unduly. In summary, the CET itself does exert the certain influence on the college English teaching in China. However, the research (Gu, 2005) shows that some schools and some classes which use textbooks and other teaching materials creatively have the better performance and higher scores in the CET. Therefore, the effects of the CET are much less than other elements such as the attitudes of schools, teachers, and students towards the CET; teachers teaching level; teachers academic level; teaching methods; and students initiative. The CET is just a very small part of the whole college English teaching system. Besides, as there are a great many of weakness which shouldnt be neglected, it is eager to find out some ways and means to achieve the beneficial washback of the CET to assist the college teaching efficiently. Promote the beneficial washback of the CET As there is a close relationship between the CET and the college English teaching indeed, the CET not only can but also should exert beneficial backwash on college English teaching. Therefore, we attempt to find out the way how we can achieve as more backwash as possible. The possible suggestion will be argued as follows: Aim to college teaching syllabi, adopt a large number of direct language testing Direct language testing means testing communicative language skills directly with using as many authentic texts and tasks as possible. (Hughes, 2003) Using direct language testing can measure students skills what we would like to foster efficiently and promote the implementation of related practice for those skills sufficiently during the regular teaching time. (Bachman, 2000) Therefore, in the CET using a great many direct language testing so that test whether students have the effective communicative language ability in the certain context. In this way, we would be able to encourage students to practice those interactive language skills as much as possible. Consequently, we can obtain the beneficial backwash from the CET to college English teaching in China as figure 1 shows. Sample tasks of writing test as much authentically and practicably as possible Adding numerous authentic and practicable tasks in writing test can promote the unpredictable of the CET. In addition, the creativity of teaching and learning can be developed rather than concentrate on what they can predict. (Hughes, 2003) Consequently, students expression ability in written English can be promoted exactly. 3.3 Give the same importance to speaking test as others Change the part of speaking in the CET to be compulsory rather than optional. Some research shows that Chinese college students oral ability is the weakest one among others. (Ceng, 1999) According to that, promoting their oral ability must be enforced. Testing the abilities which you want to incent can achieve the beneficial backwash of test sufficiently. (Hughes, 2003) Therefore, adding the oral part in the whole CET compulsorily can motivate teachers and students to promote this skill consciously. 3.4 Provide assistance to teachers in order to adapt the new test pattern Introduction of a new pattern of the test may lead many teachers feel they dont adapt it. (Hughes, 2003) Transfer the CET from grammar and vocabulary oriented to be more communicative would make a large number of teachers feel they are not familiar to enhance students communicative skills. Therefore, essential training and assistance for teachers could avoid imbalance and chaos to support the help to teaching. 3.5 Reduce the status of the CET The figure 2 shows the relationship between the CET and the college English teaching and learning currently. Therefore, if make the provision that is changing the CET from the compulsive test to be the optional test during undergraduate study. Besides, abolish all unreasonable regulations which stipulate CET certificate is one of qualifications to obtain the B.A degree. This is the basic condition to reform college English teaching with getting rid of test-oriented education. We could achieve the positive backwash of the CET to establish more harmonious relationship (which is shown in figure 3) between the CET and the college English teaching in China. To summarize, the innovation of the CET to be more communicative, more practicable, more productive would be able to promote the beneficial backwash of it to influence college English teaching across China energetically. Conclusion The present essay has discussed the relationship between the language testing and language teaching and learning from generally to specifically. The effect of the language testing is defined as backwash to impact several views of language teaching and learning. In a certain teaching and testing context, the backwash of CET has been known as to affect the implementation of the college English teaching curriculum; the using teaching materials; the teaching method and content; the administers, the teachers, and the students attitudes towards college English teaching and learning. Additionally, as there are some elements affect the deep and the nature of the CET backwash, it presents either beneficial or harmfully in different aspects of the college English teaching across China. Finally, with some theories of language testing and foreign language acquisition this essay have illustrate some proposals how to achieve as more beneficial backwash of the CET as possible. However, as the importance of communicative college English teaching is a growing concern, the demands of the productivity, the practicability, and the communicability of the CET have been received greater attention in China. Therefore, it needs to invest more and research to enhance the quality of the CET so that promote the beneficial backwash of it to cooperate with the college language teaching and learning perfectly.

Experimental Psy Article Review :: essays research papers

Experimental Psychology Article review of ‘Distorted Retrospective Eyewitness Reports as Functions of Feedback and Delay’ by Gary L. Wells, Elizabeth A. Olson, and Steve D. Charman. Iowa State University Journal of Experimental Psychology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This article was mainly about eye witnesses and the many errors they make in recalling a situation or describing a culprit whether they are asked immediately or after a period of time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this study, witnesses viewed a crime video and attempted to identify the culprit from a group line-up that did not actually have the culprit present. 253 mistaken-identification eyewitnesses were randomly given confirming, disconfirming, or no feedback regarding their description of the culprit or the culprit’s identification. The feedback process was either immediate or delayed for 48 hours, and measures were also immediate or delayed for 48 hours. It was shown that those who were given confirming feedback gave more distorted information. They had increased confidence in remembering what had happened, were able to make out facial details and their length of time to identify the culprit changed. There was also no difference in their statements when they were asked immediately or after 48 hours. Those who received disconfirming feedback were not so confident and took longer time to identify the culprit.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The writers argue that the focus on identification itself, especially in court cases, does not factor in the influence that postidentification suggestions have on the testimony of the eyewitness that might later be given about the identification. They suggest that postidentification feedback from the lineup administrator has strong effects on how the eye witness remembers the original event and on how the eyewitness recalls the identification decision. They call this the Postidentification Feedback Effect. This Effect influences both the retrospective reports of confidence and the eyewitnesses’ retrospective reports of how good their view of the culprit was, how much attention they paid to the culprit, how long they took to identify the culprit and so on. According to the writers, any psychological interpretations of the postidentification feedback effect must take into account the broad range of effects on retrospective reports of the witnessing experience rather than merely the effect on retrospective confidence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There have also been recent studies that have replicated and extended the Postidentification Feedback Effect in various ways. According to one study, â€Å"the Postidentification Feedback Effect is reduced by having eyewitnesses think privately about their certainty, the view they had, and so on, prior to giving them feedback (Wells & Bradfield, 1999).

Analyzing Psychological Disorders Essay -- Schizophrenia Interview

Introduction: In this paper, I will be interviewing for a psychologist position with a top company. I will be asked about my understanding of the causes and treatment(s) of schizophrenia and I will discuss the following: areas of the brain affected, causal factors, associated symptoms, the neural basis, appropriate drug therapies. I have been given four different case studies of disorders in which I will choose two of them to analyze. I will be discussing my understanding of the problem presented in each of the two case studies from the perspective of a biopsychologist. I will also be including each problem’s relation to the nature-nurture issue and any relevant portions of the Basics to Biopsychology text. I will be applying any helpful drug interventions or solutions and discussing the positive or negative aspects of these drug interventions or solutions. Schizophrenia: Out of all of the psychological disorders, schizophrenia is the most damaging and affects nearly three million American’s today. This disorder causes a person to lose all sense of reality, which causes one to have delusions, hallucinations, extreme suspicion, and symptoms vary between men and women. The ages of which symptoms are experienced are late teens to early twenties in men and late twenties to early thirties for women. While those who suffer from schizophrenia may seem to make some progress in recovery, usually all will exhibit marked symptoms throughout the course of their life. Causes and Triggers: While schizophrenia is considered to be a complex brain disorder, many different things contribute to the causes of this disorder. Genetics, behavioral, and developmental reasons are some of the likely causes while stress, trauma, and viral inf... ...depression/medication.htm HelpGuide.org. (2001-2010). Anorexia Nervosa - Understanding the Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anorexia_signs_symptoms_causes_treatment.htm The Lundbeck Institute. (2002-2005). Schizophrenia - Aetiology. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.brainexplorer.org/schizophrenia/Schizophrenia_aetiology.shtml The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2010). Anxiety Disorders. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml All Psych and Heffner Media Group, Inc. (1999-2003). Psychiatric Disorders. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://allpsych.com/disorders/mood/majordepression.html Geitner, C. (n.d.). Dysthymic Disorder. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.bipolarhome.org/understanding.html Analyzing Psychological Disorders Essay -- Schizophrenia Interview Introduction: In this paper, I will be interviewing for a psychologist position with a top company. I will be asked about my understanding of the causes and treatment(s) of schizophrenia and I will discuss the following: areas of the brain affected, causal factors, associated symptoms, the neural basis, appropriate drug therapies. I have been given four different case studies of disorders in which I will choose two of them to analyze. I will be discussing my understanding of the problem presented in each of the two case studies from the perspective of a biopsychologist. I will also be including each problem’s relation to the nature-nurture issue and any relevant portions of the Basics to Biopsychology text. I will be applying any helpful drug interventions or solutions and discussing the positive or negative aspects of these drug interventions or solutions. Schizophrenia: Out of all of the psychological disorders, schizophrenia is the most damaging and affects nearly three million American’s today. This disorder causes a person to lose all sense of reality, which causes one to have delusions, hallucinations, extreme suspicion, and symptoms vary between men and women. The ages of which symptoms are experienced are late teens to early twenties in men and late twenties to early thirties for women. While those who suffer from schizophrenia may seem to make some progress in recovery, usually all will exhibit marked symptoms throughout the course of their life. Causes and Triggers: While schizophrenia is considered to be a complex brain disorder, many different things contribute to the causes of this disorder. Genetics, behavioral, and developmental reasons are some of the likely causes while stress, trauma, and viral inf... ...depression/medication.htm HelpGuide.org. (2001-2010). Anorexia Nervosa - Understanding the Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anorexia_signs_symptoms_causes_treatment.htm The Lundbeck Institute. (2002-2005). Schizophrenia - Aetiology. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.brainexplorer.org/schizophrenia/Schizophrenia_aetiology.shtml The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2010). Anxiety Disorders. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml All Psych and Heffner Media Group, Inc. (1999-2003). Psychiatric Disorders. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://allpsych.com/disorders/mood/majordepression.html Geitner, C. (n.d.). Dysthymic Disorder. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.bipolarhome.org/understanding.html

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of world around us. It involves deciding which information notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge. Another definition of perception is â€Å"A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment†.We can summarize the perception with this sentence â€Å"We don’t see the things as they are, we see things as we are†. Why is perception important in the study of Organizational Behaviour? Simply because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Virtually all management activities rely on perception.In appraising performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee’s behaviour as a basis for evaluation. Factors that influen ce perception are categorized to three groups; 1)Factors in the perceiver: Attitudes, Motives, Interests, Experience, Expectations 2)Factors in the situation: Time, Work Setting, Social Setting 3)Factors in the target: Novelty, Motion, Sounds, Size, Background, Proximity, Similarity Shortcuts used in judging others; )Selective Perception: a characteristic that make someone stand out in our mind will increase the probability that it will be perceived 2)Halo Effect: drawing a general impression based on a single characteristic 3)Contrast Effects: our reaction is influenced by others we have recently encountered 4)Projection: the tendency to attribute our own characteristics to other people 5)Stereotyping: judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which they belong Attribution in OrganizationsAttribution simply refers to how a person explains the cause of another’s or his or her own behaviour. Attribution thus is the most relevant application of perception c oncepts of organizational behaviour-the issue of person perception. The attributions or inferred causes we provide for behaviour have important implications in organizations. In explaining the causes of employee performance, good or bad, we are asked to explain the behaviour that was the basis for the performance.Attribution Theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused: Internally; believed to be under the personal control of the individual Externally; resulting from outside causes. Determinants of Attribution Distinctiveness; whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. Consensus; if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way. Consistency; does the person respond the same way over time.Individual Decision Making Individuals in organizations make decisions. That is, they make choices from among two or more alternatives. Decision-making is almost universally defined as choosing between alternatives. Decision-making is a critical activity in the lives of managers. The decisions a manager faces can range from very simple, routine matters for which the manager has an established decision rule(programmed decisions) to new and complex decisions that require creative solutions(non-programmed decisions). Decision-Making ProcessManagers have to make decisions whether they are simple or extremely complex. Making a good decision is a difficult exercise. It is the product of deliberation, evaluation and thought. To make good decisions, managers should invariably follow a sequential set of steps. 1)recognize the problem and need for a decision 2)identify the objective of the decision 3)gather and evaluate data and diagnose the situation 4)list and evaluate alternatives 5)select the best course of action 6)implement the decision 7)gather feedback 8)follow up

High School and Younger Girls Essay

I chose to write this paper on bullying and its effect on school. In my middle school years, after I had moved here from Alaska, I was bullied a lot because I was new to the school and it was such a small town. It had effects on me that still affect me today. For example, if someone says my name or taps me on the back I don’t turn around because when I was younger girls would do that to me and then laugh at me. I feel bullying is a serious subject and that’s why I chose to look further in to it. The article I chose to do was Bullying in School: The Traumatic Effects of Bullying on Children by Dr. Terry Ehiorobo. The beginning of his article starts off by explaining how bullying has gotten out of hand and what is being done about it. For example, a child getting bullied ended up suing his school because on one was doing anything to stop the bullying, and he even won. In his article he explains different types of bullying situations using certain examples. Dr. Ehiorobo says in his article, â€Å"The world of bullying has a life of its own. It takes no prisoners and its effects can be long lasting and endemic in some cases.† Bullying is a very serious issue in today’s society and I’m glad something is being done to put a spotlight on it. If a stop is put to bullying kids will do better in school, therefor having a better effect on the rest of their lives. Works Cited Ehiorobo, Terry Dr. â€Å"Bullying in School: The Traumatic Effects of Bullying on Children.† CPI. n.p. 25 September 2013. Web March 2012. http://www.crisisprevention.com/Resources/Article-Library/Nonviolent-Crisis-Intervention-Training-Articles/Traumatic-Effects-of-Bullying-Children